Evidence
105 studies, each graded for how strong the evidence is and flagged for who paid for it. Filter by verdict, topic or funder, or search for a word.
Sorted strongest evidence first. Each title links to the paper itself. “Discussed on” takes you to the page that explains what the study means. Read how we grade studies.
Woods B et al., Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 20232,766 people with mild to moderate dementiaUsually about 14 group sessions
A small benefit to thinking and memory, about 2 points on the 30-point MMSE memory test, which is roughly six months’ worth of usual decline. Clear gains in communication and social interaction (high-quality evidence). A small gain in quality of life. No harms reported. Recommended by NICE, the UK’s health guidance body.
Discussed on Living with it
Public / nonprofit Not reported in the review summary we read (Cochrane is a nonprofit)
Sperling RA et al., New England Journal of Medicine 2023More than 1,100 cognitively normal people aged 65–85 with amyloid on a PET scanAbout 4.5 years
Failed. On a combined memory and thinking score (PACC), people on the antibody declined by 1.69 points vs 1.40 on placebo, a difference that could be chance (p = 0.26). The drug did not slow decline in people who had amyloid but no symptoms.
Discussed on Clinical trials
Industry Eli Lilly with the National Institute on Aging and philanthropy (public–private partnership); exact split not confirmed
Lin FR et al., The Lancet 2023977 older adults with hearing loss3 years
No benefit overall. In the higher-risk group that the study planned in advance to look at separately, hearing care slowed thinking decline by 48%.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging
Coe et al., Alzheimer’s & Dementia: TRCI 20262,021 older adults20 years
People who did speed training plus booster sessions had 25% fewer dementia diagnoses. Memory training and reasoning training didn’t help, and neither did speed training without the boosters.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Seller conflict National Institute on Aging; National Institute of Nursing Research
Conflicts: A co-author consults for and owns stock in Posit Science, which sells the training as BrainHQ.
Ball EL et al., Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2020708 people in 13 trialsVaried
No convincing evidence that aromatherapy helps agitation or other symptoms. Of 5 agitation trials with usable data, 1 showed benefit and 4 did not. Harms were poorly reported. Evidence quality was low.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Public / nonprofit Cochrane (independent)
Clarke R et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2014About 22,000Varied by trial
Lowering homocysteine with B vitamins did not slow the aging of thinking in unselected older adults. It did not pick out people with high homocysteine or low B12.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Public / nonprofit British Heart Foundation; UK Medical Research Council; Cancer Research UK; UK Food Standards Agency
van Dyck CH et al., New England Journal of Medicine 20231,795 people with mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia and confirmed amyloid18 months
On the 18-point CDR-SB dementia scale, people on lecanemab worsened by 1.21 points and people on placebo by 1.66 points. The difference was 0.45 points, reported as “27% slower decline.” Brain swelling on scans (ARIA-E) showed up in 12.6% on the drug vs 1.7% on placebo, usually without symptoms. Infusion reactions in 26.4%.
Discussed on Medicines
Industry Eisai and Biogen, which sell the drug
Nonino F, Richard E et al., Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2026 (CD016297)20,342Trials of varying length
Concluded that effects on thinking and dementia severity were “absent or trivial, falling well below established thresholds” for a difference people would notice, and that the drugs “likely increase the risk of swelling and bleeding in the brain.” Critics point out that 15 of the 17 trials tested antibodies that failed or were withdrawn, and only 2 tested the approved drugs. We could not open the full text, so its pooled numbers are not shown here.
Discussed on Medicines
Funder not confirmed Not yet confirmed
Birks J, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006 (CD005593)10 trials pooledNot reported in the summary we read
On a 70-point thinking test (ADAS-Cog), people on the drugs scored on average 2.37 points better than people on placebo. More people stopped the drugs than stopped placebo (29 in 100 vs 18 in 100). Nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea were more common on the drugs. The three drugs worked about equally well; donepezil had fewer side effects than rivastigmine. Cochrane now marks this review as “considerably out of date.”
Discussed on Medicines
Funder not confirmed Not reported (Cochrane review). The original drug trials were largely run by the makers; not yet confirmed trial by trial.
Baker LD et al., Alzheimer’s & Dementia 2025296 people with mild cognitive impairment18 months
No difference between aerobic exercise and stretching. Neither group declined over 12 months, which is better than similar patients usually do. Any regular, supervised movement may be what counts, but with no do-nothing group this can’t be proven.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging; Brain Research Foundation
Singh B et al., British Journal of Sports Medicine 2025258,279 people across all trialsVaried by trial
Exercise improved overall thinking, memory and planning skills across age groups. It measured test scores, not dementia diagnoses.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit No specific funding
Ngandu T et al., The Lancet 20151,260 older adults at raised risk, Finland2 years
The combined program improved thinking scores compared with general health advice. People in the advice-only group were about 30% more likely to decline. The outcome was test scores, not dementia diagnoses.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit Academy of Finland, Finnish and Swedish government bodies, Alzheimer’s charities, Juho Vainio and Novo Nordisk foundations
Cortexyme GAIN trial, NCT03823404; results reported by the company in 2021643 people with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s48 weeks
The drug targets toxins from P. gingivalis, a bacterium linked to gum disease. It missed both main goals (thinking and daily living). A subgroup analysis claimed benefit in people with the bacterium in their saliva, but subgroup findings are not proof. Liver enzymes rose to more than 3 times normal in 7% (low dose) and 15% (high dose) of people. The FDA put the drug on full hold in January 2022 over liver safety.
Discussed on The frontier
Industry Cortexyme (the drug’s developer)
DeKosky ST et al., JAMA 20083,069 older adultsAbout 6 years
120 mg of ginkgo extract twice a day (240 mg daily) did not lower the rate of dementia or Alzheimer’s compared with placebo. This is one of the largest supplement trials ever run for dementia prevention.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Public / nonprofit National Institutes of Health (NCCAM, NIA, NHLBI, NINDS); the maker donated the pills
Inouye SK et al., New England Journal of Medicine 1999 (Yale summary)852 hospital patients aged 70+The hospital stay
New delirium fell from 15% to 9.9% of patients, about 5 fewer cases per 100 people, a relative drop of about 40%. The program used orientation, mental activity, walking three times a day, sleep help without pills, glasses and hearing aids, and fluids. Patients were older adults generally, not only people with dementia.
Discussed on Living with it
Funder not confirmed Not reported
Brück et al., BMJ 2025;388:e080636More than 5 million people with dementiaStudies of varying length, pooled
Age at diagnosis mattered most. Average life expectancy after diagnosis was 8.9 years for a woman diagnosed at 60 and 2.2 years for a woman diagnosed at 85. For men it was 6.5 years at 60 and about 2 years at 85. People with Alzheimer’s lived up to 1.4 years longer than people with other types. 13% had moved to a nursing home within 1 year, 35% within 3 years and 57% within 5 years. These are averages; any one person can live much longer or shorter.
Discussed on What Alzheimer’s is
Funder not confirmed Not yet confirmed.
Andrieu S et al., Lancet Neurology 20171,680 older adults, France3 years
Neither omega-3 fish oil, nor a lifestyle program, nor both together slowed decline compared with placebo.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Industry French Ministry of Health; Pierre Fabre (maker of the omega-3) co-funded
Barnes LL et al., New England Journal of Medicine 2023604 older adults3 years
No difference in thinking between the MIND diet and a usual diet when both groups cut calories slightly. Both groups improved about the same.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging
van der Steen JT et al., Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 20251,720 people, mostly in nursing homesFive or more sessions
Music probably lifts depressed mood slightly (moderate certainty) and may improve overall behavior and social behavior (low certainty). It likely does not reduce agitation or aggression, and showed no clear effect on anxiety, memory or quality of life. Benefits did not clearly last once the sessions stopped.
Discussed on Living with it
Public / nonprofit Not reported in our notes (Cochrane is a nonprofit)
Long KH et al., The Gerontologist (analysis of the Mittelman NYU trial)Spouse caregivers (trial size not confirmed in our notes)6 counseling sessions in 4 months, then an ongoing support group and phone help
Compared with usual care, the program cut the risk of a nursing-home move by 28.3%. A model built for Minnesota Medicaid projected cost savings.
Discussed on Living with it
Funder not confirmed Not yet confirmed
Belle SH et al., Annals of Internal Medicine 2006 (NIH news release)642 Hispanic, White and African American caregivers9 home visits, 3 phone calls and 5 phone support-group sessions
Caregivers who got the program were more likely to have a meaningful rise in quality of life: 45% vs control groups’ 7–13% among Hispanic caregivers, 40% among White caregivers and 28% among African American caregivers. Clinical depression was 12.6% vs 22.7%. The drop in nursing-home moves was small and not statistically clear.
Discussed on Living with it
Public / nonprofit National Institutes of Health
Williamson JD et al., JAMA 20199,361 adults with high blood pressureAbout 3.3 years of treatment
Tighter blood-pressure control (a top number under 120 instead of under 140) cut new cases of mild cognitive impairment. The drop in dementia itself was not statistically significant, partly because the trial stopped early when the heart benefits became clear.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit National Institutes of Health (NHLBI, NIA, NIDDK, NINDS)
Eyting M et al., Nature 2025282,541 adults in Wales7 years
People born just late enough to qualify for the shingles vaccine had 20% fewer dementia diagnoses than people born just too early. The effect was stronger in women. This is about as close to a trial as observational data gets, but it is not a trial.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging; NIAID; Knight Initiative for Brain Resilience; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub
Velayudhan L et al., PLOS Medicine 20216,216 adults aged 50 and overVaried
Products with THC raised the rate of side effects about 1.4 to 1.6 times, mainly dizziness, drowsiness, dry mouth and poor coordination, which the authors flag because of falls. CBD alone did not raise side effects, but only 4 studies tested it. Serious side effects did not increase.
Discussed on The frontier
Funder not confirmed Not reported
Sims JR et al., JAMA 20231,736 people with mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia and confirmed amyloid76 weeks (about 18 months)
On the 18-point CDR-SB scale, the whole group worsened 1.72 points on donanemab vs 2.42 on placebo, a 0.70-point difference. In people with low or medium tau the difference was 0.67 points (1.20 vs 1.88). Brain swelling (ARIA-E) in 24.0% vs 2.1% on placebo; any ARIA in 36.8% vs 14.9%. Deaths: 16 on the drug (3 judged treatment-related) vs 10 on placebo (1 treatment-related).
Discussed on Medicines
Industry Eli Lilly, which sells the drug
Baker LD et al., JAMA 20252,111 at-risk older adults2 years
Both groups improved. The coached group improved slightly more, most of all in people who started with lower scores. There was no group that got nothing, so this compares two programs.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Charity Alzheimer’s Association
Devanand DP et al., JAMA 2025120 people with early Alzheimer’s who carried herpes simplex virus78 weeks
The antiviral did not help. People taking it declined faster on the main memory test than people on placebo.
Discussed on The frontier
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging
Kang JH et al., Alzheimer’s & Dementia: TRCI 2022About 3,300 older adults2–3 years
1 gram of fish oil a day did not slow thinking decline.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Public / nonprofit National Institutes of Health
Kang JH et al., Scientific Reports 20214,218 older adults2–3 years
No benefit to thinking overall. Black participants did slightly better on vitamin D, a subgroup finding that needs testing.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Public / nonprofit National Institutes of Health
Novo Nordisk topline announcement, 24 November 2025 (company release)3,808 people with early Alzheimer’s2 years
No benefit. Decline on the CDR-SB dementia scale at 2 years was no slower than on placebo. Some blood markers of Alzheimer’s improved, but symptoms did not. The company cancelled the extension phase.
Discussed on Clinical trials
Industry Novo Nordisk, which sells the drug
Moll van Charante EP et al., The Lancet 20163,526 adults over 70, Netherlands6.7 years
No overall drop in dementia: 6.5% of the care group vs 7.0% of the usual-care group. People with untreated high blood pressure at the start who stuck with the program may have benefited, but that was a subgroup finding.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit Dutch Ministry of Health; ZonMw
Alzheon topline announcement, April 2025 (company release)People with early Alzheimer’s and two copies of APOE4 (total not confirmed here)Not reported in the sources we read
Missed its main goal. The difference on a thinking test (ADAS-Cog13) was 0.50 points, which could easily be chance (p = 0.607). The company highlights a pre-planned subgroup of 125 people with mild cognitive impairment who did better (p = 0.041). Brain swelling was the same in both groups (3.4%). No FDA filing confirmed.
Discussed on Clinical trials
Industry Alzheon (sponsor). The company says a $51 million National Institute on Aging grant (R01AG065253) paid for the trial.
Hudson S, Tabet N, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003Not reportedVaried by trial
No evidence of benefit on dementia severity, daily function or clinicians’ overall impression. The few positive results were likely due to chance. The review found no reason to recommend routine use.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Public / nonprofit Not reported (Cochrane review)
Kongkeaw C et al., Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2014About 518 adults without dementia12 weeks or more
Small gains in attention and speed of thinking. Most other memory and thinking scores did not change. None of these trials was in people with dementia.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Funder not confirmed Not reported. Several of the included trials used branded extracts, often supplied by the makers (not yet confirmed trial by trial).
European Medicines Agency, blarcamesine Anavex assessment, Dec 2025–Mar 2026Not reported in the sources we readNot reported in the sources we read
The EMA’s expert committee recommended refusing approval on 11–12 December 2025. It cited failed main goals, concerns about the trial methods, dropouts driven by dizziness and a possible impurity. Anavex asked for a re-examination, then withdrew its application on 25 March 2026.
Discussed on Clinical trials
Industry Anavex Life Sciences, the maker
US Food and Drug Administration approval announcement, 12 May 2023Not reported in the sources we read12 weeks each
The 2–3 mg dose lowered agitation scores (Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory) more than placebo. An FDA advisory committee voted 9–1 in favour. It carries a boxed warning: older people with dementia who take antipsychotics have a higher risk of death. One secondary source reports deaths of 0.9% on the drug vs 0.3% on placebo in the trials; we have not confirmed that against the label.
Discussed on Medicines
Industry Otsuka and Lundbeck, which sell the drug
Fong et al., American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease & Other Dementias 2023648 people with dementiaVaried by trial
Fewer night-time awakenings. No meaningful effect on agitation or depression. An older Cochrane review had found too little evidence to judge.
Discussed on Living with it
Funder not confirmed Not reported
CALERIE 2 secondary analysis, Journal of NutritionHealthy, non-obese adults aged 21–502 years
Aiming to eat 25% fewer calories did not improve working memory compared with eating normally. Both groups improved with practice.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging; NIDDK
Baker LD et al., Alzheimer’s & Dementia 2022; Yeung LK et al., AJCN 20232,262 and about 3,5002–3 years
A basic daily multivitamin modestly improved memory and thinking, about 2 years less cognitive aging when three studies are pooled. All three come from one parent trial, and none measured dementia diagnoses.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Industry National Institute on Aging; Mars Edge; Pfizer and Haleon supplied tablets
Baker LD et al., Alzheimer’s & Dementia 2022; Vyas CM et al., AJCN 20242,2622–3 years
No benefit to thinking overall, even with funding from a cocoa company. There may be a benefit in people who ate poorly to begin with.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Industry Mars Edge (Mars Inc.); NIH
Cochrane review, 2021126 people in 4 trialsVaried
Any effect on agitation was too small to matter in daily life, and the evidence was of very low to low certainty. Nabilone caused sleepiness. The review came out before the dronabinol and Avidekel trials, so it is out of date.
Discussed on The frontier
Public / nonprofit Cochrane (independent)
Lee CS et al., JAMA Internal Medicine 20223,038 older adults with cataracts7.8 years
People who had cataracts removed had about 30% less dementia. Glaucoma surgery, which does not restore sight, showed no link. That points to better vision itself, but an observational study can’t prove cause.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit National Eye Institute; National Institute on Aging; Alzheimer’s Drug Discovery Foundation
Zhang Y et al., PLOS Medicine 2021365,682 adults aged 50–74Median 11.4 years
2–3 cups of coffee plus 2–3 cups of tea a day went with 28% lower dementia risk than neither. Moderate amounts looked best. There was no link with Alzheimer’s specifically, only with dementia overall and vascular dementia.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Public / nonprofit National Natural Science Foundation of China
US Food and Drug Administration approval announcement, 30 April 2026Not reported in the sources we read5 weeks (ADVANCE-1)
In ADVANCE-1, agitation scores improved significantly more than on placebo. In ACCORD-2, 8.4% of people kept on the drug relapsed vs 28.6% switched to placebo. A second short trial (ADVANCE-2) is reported to have missed its main goal, but we have not confirmed that. Side effects included dizziness, nausea, headache, diarrhoea, sleepiness and dry mouth.
Discussed on Medicines
Industry Axsome Therapeutics, which sells the drug
Johns Hopkins-led trial at 5 sites, American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 202575 people with Alzheimer’s and severe agitation3 weeks
5 mg twice a day, added to usual care, lowered agitation scores by about 30% (from 9.68 to 7.26 points on the Pittsburgh Agitation Scale). Scores on placebo did not change. Well tolerated; no delirium or seizures were reported.
Discussed on The frontier
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging (NIH)
Cochrane review, 20151,067 people with dementiaVaried by trial
Exercise helped with everyday tasks such as dressing and moving around (very low certainty evidence). No clear effect on memory and thinking, behavior symptoms or depression.
Discussed on Living with it
Public / nonprofit Not reported in our notes (Cochrane is a nonprofit)
Yeh TS et al., Neurology 202149,493 women and 27,842 menAbout 20 years of diet records
People eating the most flavonoids had about 19% lower odds of reporting memory decline. Strawberries, oranges, peppers, celery, apples, pears and blueberries were top sources. The outcome was self-reported, not diagnosed dementia.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Public / nonprofit National Institutes of Health
Geng J et al., Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010289 healthy adults (5 trials with usable data)Varied
The reviewers found no convincing evidence that ginseng helps thinking in healthy people and no high-quality evidence in people with dementia. No serious side effects were reported.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Public / nonprofit Cochrane (independent)
Rafii MS et al., Neurology 2011About 210 people with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s (number not yet confirmed)About 16 weeks (not yet confirmed)
The main test, 200 micrograms twice a day, did not improve thinking scores. In an extra analysis the planners added, a higher dose (400 micrograms twice a day) showed some improvement. Extra analyses like this suggest ideas for the next trial; they do not prove benefit.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging, through the Alzheimer’s Disease Cooperative Study
Gildengers A et al., JAMA Neurology 202680 older adults with mild cognitive impairment2 years
The trial missed its formal goals. Verbal memory declined about half as fast on lithium (0.73 points a year vs 1.42 on placebo), just short of the strict bar the trial set. Kidney changes, diarrhea and tremor were more common on lithium, and older adults struggled with side effects above 300 mg a day.
Discussed on Alternative programs
Funder not confirmed Not yet confirmed
Morris MC et al., Neurology 2018960 older adults, average age 81Nearly 5 years
People eating the most leafy greens (about 1.3 servings a day) declined at a rate equal to being about 11 years younger than those eating almost none (0.09 servings a day).
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging
Burns A et al., Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 2011More than the first trial (exact number not yet confirmed)12 weeks
No difference among lemon balm oil, donepezil and placebo. All three groups got calmer. Hiding which oil is which is hard with a strong scent, which makes these trials difficult.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Funder not confirmed Not yet confirmed
Gray SL et al., JAMA Internal Medicine 2015;175(3):401–4073,434 adults aged 65+ without dementia at the start7.3 years on average
People with the highest long-term use (more than 3 years’ worth of daily doses) had a 54% higher risk of dementia (hazard ratio 1.54). The more they took, the higher the risk. The drugs were older antidepressants, older antihistamines such as diphenhydramine, and bladder drugs. This shows a link, not proof that the drugs cause dementia, and it does not show whether stopping them lowers the risk.
Discussed on Getting a diagnosis
Funder not confirmed Not yet confirmed.
Forlenza OV et al., British Journal of Psychiatry 201145 adults with mild cognitive impairment12 months
The lithium group had somewhat less memory decline and lower tau in spinal fluid than the placebo group. Blood levels were below the usual psychiatric range but far above anything a supplement pill provides.
Discussed on Alternative programs
Public / nonprofit CNPq and FAPESP (Brazilian government research agencies); Alzheimer’s Association
Valls-Pedret C et al., JAMA Internal Medicine 2015447 enrolled, 334 analyzedAbout 4 years
Extra olive oil improved overall thinking. Extra nuts improved memory. The low-fat control group declined. Many people dropped out of the analysis, and the parent trial had randomization problems.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Industry Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Spain); olive oil and walnuts donated by industry
Herrmann N et al., American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2019About 39 people with moderate to severe Alzheimer’s (not yet confirmed)Two 6-week phases
Agitation improved more on nabilone than on placebo, as did overall behavior and caregiver distress. Sleepiness was more common on nabilone (about 45% vs 16%, not yet confirmed).
Discussed on The frontier
Charity Not yet confirmed (reported as the Alzheimer’s Drug Discovery Foundation and Alzheimer Society of Canada)
Taquet M et al., Nature Medicine 2024207,674 vaccinated adults, United States6 years
People who got Shingrix had 17% more time free of a dementia diagnosis than people who got the older vaccine.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit NIHR Oxford Health Biomedical Research Centre
Ornish D et al., Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy 202451 enrolled, 49 completed; mild cognitive impairment or early Alzheimer’s20 weeks
A whole-food plant-based diet, exercise, stress management and group support. On a clinician’s overall rating, 10 of 24 in the lifestyle group improved vs 0 of 25 controls. Two dementia rating scales also favored the lifestyle group. A standard memory test (ADAS-Cog) just missed significance. Small, short, and registered after it started.
Discussed on Alternative programs
Seller conflict Private donors. The paper says sponsors had no role in the study.
Conflicts: Dr. Ornish holds equity in Ornish Lifestyle Medicine, which sells the program.
Ringman JM et al., Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy 201236 people with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s24 weeks
2 to 4 grams a day of ordinary curcumin did not help thinking or brain markers, and very little of it reached the blood.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Public / nonprofit National Institutes of Health; John Douglas French Foundation
Cochrane review, 20181,972 people with dementiaVaried by trial
Effects were inconsistent and often small. Little or no effect on quality of life overall, with a slight benefit in care homes. A tiny gain in thinking. Group sessions probably help communication a little; one-to-one sessions may help mood a little.
Discussed on Living with it
Public / nonprofit Not reported in our notes (Cochrane is a nonprofit)
Craft S et al., JAMA Neurology 2020240 people with MCI or mild Alzheimer’s dementia12 months
No benefit for thinking or daily function compared with placebo. This was a direct test of the “type 3 diabetes” idea, and it did not work in this form.
Discussed on What Alzheimer’s is
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging (reported; not yet confirmed from the paper)
Schwarz C et al., JAMA Network Open 2022100 older adults with memory complaints12 months
No effect on memory or on biomarkers compared with placebo.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Seller conflict German Federal Ministry of Education and Research; German Research Foundation (DFG); product from The Longevity Labs
Conflicts: The Longevity Labs supplied the extract. Several authors held equity in or advised the company.
Soininen H et al., Alzheimer’s & Dementia 2021311 with prodromal Alzheimer’s (only 81 in the 36-month analysis)36 months
The main 24-month result, published in 2017, was null. With longer follow-up, the 36-month test battery favored the drink (the paper reports 60% less decline), with 45% less worsening on a dementia rating and 33% less hippocampus shrinkage. Heavy dropout weakens the later result.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Seller conflict EU FP7 for the first phase; Danone Nutricia Research (the maker) funded months 25–96
Conflicts: The statistician was paid by Nutricia. The maker funded the follow-up that produced the positive results.
Merck announcement of Phase 3 results (company claim); FDA label expanded 3 February 2020285 people with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s and insomnia4 weeks
Total sleep time rose by 73 minutes on the drug vs 45 minutes on placebo, a gain of 28 minutes a night. Side effects included sleepiness (4%), dry mouth (2%) and falls (2%), plus next-day drowsiness.
Discussed on Medicines
Industry Merck, which sells the drug
Family N et al., Psychopharmacology 202048 healthy older adults (average age 63)21 days (six doses, one every 4 days)
Placebo or 5, 10 or 20 micrograms of LSD. Side effects were no more common than on placebo except headache (17% to 50% of people on LSD vs 8% on placebo). No harm to thinking on computer tests. The study tested safety only; no one had dementia and no benefit was measured.
Discussed on The frontier
Industry Eleusis, a company developing LSD for Alzheimer’s
Smith AD et al., PLoS One 2010271 people with mild cognitive impairment (168 completed brain scans)2 years
Folic acid, B12 and B6 slowed brain shrinkage: 0.76% a year vs 1.08% a year on placebo, about 30% slower. In people with high homocysteine (above 13 µmol/L) shrinkage was 53% slower. The trial measured brain scans, not dementia.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Seller conflict UK charities, Medical Research Council, NIHR
Conflicts: The lead author is named on University of Oxford patents for folic acid in Alzheimer’s and could benefit financially. Two authors had received past speaking fees from the company that donated the tablets.
Erickson KI et al., PNAS 2011120 older adults1 year
A year of walking grew the hippocampus (the brain’s memory center) by about 2%. The stretching group lost volume over the same year. Brain size on a scan, not dementia, was the outcome.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging
Small GW et al., American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 201840 adults without dementia18 months
90 mg twice a day of a specially formulated, better-absorbed curcumin improved memory and attention scores and lowered plaque signals on brain scans. Small study, not people with Alzheimer’s.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Seller conflict NIH and foundations; the maker supplied the product
Conflicts: Several authors had a financial interest in TauMark LLC, which licensed the brain-scan tracer used.
Randomized trial, BMC Geriatrics 2024 (Korea)100 people with amnestic MCI12 weeks
600 mg a day improved a thinking test (ADAS-Cog) by 2.34 points vs 0.97 on placebo, a just-significant difference.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Seller conflict Suheung (maker of the product used)
Conflicts: Supported by the manufacturer, although the authors declared no competing interests.
Choudhary D et al., Journal of Dietary Supplements 201750 adults with mild cognitive impairment8 weeks
600 mg a day of a branded extract (KSM-66) improved memory, attention and speed scores more than placebo. Small and short; no trial has looked at dementia itself.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Seller conflict Ixoreal Biomed, maker of KSM-66, donated the product
Conflicts: The maker of the product supplied it.
Henderson ST et al., Nutrition & Metabolism 2009152 randomized, 140 analyzed90 days
A 1.9-point gain on a thinking test (ADAS-Cog) at day 45, but not a significant one at day 90 in the full group. People without the APOE4 gene did better (3.36 points at day 90). Diarrhea 24% vs 14%; 23% vs 6% dropped out for side effects. Benefits faded after a two-week break.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Seller conflict Accera (the maker)
Conflicts: Accera funded the study, designed the protocol and ran or commissioned the analysis.
Hermush V et al., Frontiers in Medicine 202260 people with dementia (average age 79)16 weeks
The oil was 30% CBD and 1% THC. 60% of people on the oil had a meaningful drop in agitation (at least 4 points), against 30% on placebo. Sleep improved. Sleepiness (49%), confusion (46%) and worse memory (32%) were common, but not significantly more than on placebo. Two deaths were judged unrelated.
Discussed on The frontier
Seller conflict Tikun Olam, the maker of the oil
Conflicts: Two authors were company employees with stock options; one holds the patent.
GeroScience 202450,386 adultsAbout 7 years
Eating nuts daily went with 12% lower dementia risk. About one handful (30 g) looked best, and unsalted beat salted.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Funder not confirmed Not yet confirmed
Laukkanen T et al., Age and Ageing 20172,315 men, Finland20 years
Men who used a sauna 4–7 times a week had about 65% less dementia than once-a-week users. Men only, one region, and healthier men may simply use the sauna more.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research
Puttarak P et al., Scientific Reports 2017Not reported in our notesVaried
No effect on any area of memory or thinking compared with placebo. People felt more alert and less angry in the short term.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Funder not confirmed Not reported
Yang G et al., PLOS ONE 20131,823About 15 weeks on average
Scores on a short memory test (MMSE) improved at 8, 12 and 16 weeks. The two trials that used a more detailed test (ADAS-Cog) found no difference. Most trials were of moderate or poor quality; only 1 in 5 described how people were randomly assigned. Side effects were mild: nausea, poor appetite, dizziness.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Public / nonprofit Beijing University of Chinese Medicine
Ballard CG et al., Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 200272 care-home residents with severe dementia and agitation4 weeks
Lemon balm lotion rubbed on the face and arms twice a day cut agitation scores by 35%, against 11% with sunflower oil. 60% of the lemon balm group improved by at least 30%, against 14% of the comparison group. No significant side effects.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Public / nonprofit UK academic and NHS
Mori K et al., Phytotherapy Research 200930 older adults with mild cognitive impairment16 weeks
3 grams a day of dried mushroom powder raised thinking scores. The gains were gone within 4 weeks of stopping.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Funder not confirmed Not yet confirmed
Kessing LV et al., JAMA Psychiatry 2017807,384Records study, no treatment period
People whose water had the most lithium had 17% less dementia. But people in a middle band had 22% more. With no clean dose pattern, the study cannot show that lithium in water protects the brain.
Discussed on Alternative programs
Funder not confirmed Not reported on the pages we reached; water data from Geocenter Denmark
Duthie A et al., International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 202337,597Records study, no treatment period
No link in men. Women living with higher lithium levels had somewhat more dementia (up to 17% higher risk), the opposite of the Danish result. Lithium in Scottish water is very low overall.
Discussed on Alternative programs
Public / nonprofit No specific grant
Morris MC et al., Alzheimer’s & Dementia 2015923 older adults4.5 years
People who followed the MIND diet most closely had 53% less Alzheimer’s than those who followed it least. This study made the diet famous. A cohort shows a link, not cause.
Discussed on Lowering your risk
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging
Liu G et al., Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 201651 enrolled, 44 completed12 weeks
Overall thinking scores improved more than on placebo. The company described this as about 9 years of “brain age” reversal, based on comparisons with normal scores. Small, short, and run by the maker.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Seller conflict Neurocentria Inc. (the maker)
Conflicts: The maker co-designed the study, took part in the analysis and wrote the paper.
Cochrane review, 20062 small rigorous studies (numbers not in our notes)Short-term
Hand massage may calm agitation in the short term. The reviewers called the evidence too limited to generalize, and the review is now old.
Discussed on Living with it
Public / nonprofit Not reported in our notes (Cochrane is a nonprofit)
Phillips MCL et al., Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy 202126 people with Alzheimer’sTwo 12-week periods
Thinking scores did not change significantly. Daily-living skills and quality of life improved on the ketogenic diet.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Funder not confirmed Not yet confirmed
Wu et al., Alzheimer’s & Dementia: TRCI 202537 completers with memory complaints or MCI8 weeks per phase
No benefit to thinking. A blood marker of Alzheimer’s (pTau217) fell about 7% on the supplement and rose 18% on placebo, and step counts rose. A blood marker is not the same as better memory.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Seller conflict Challenger Foundation; McCance Center
Conflicts: ChromaDex supplied the supplement. A co-author is reported to hold ChromaDex equity and consult for the company (not yet confirmed).
Hajós M et al., Frontiers in Neurology 202476 people with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s6 months
Missed its main goals. Some secondary measures, such as brain volume, looked better in the treated group. A larger trial of about 670 people (HOPE) is due to report.
Discussed on The frontier
Seller conflict Cognito Therapeutics, maker of the device
Conflicts: Company-run; authors are company employees.
Chen S et al., PLOS Medicine 202229,618 mental-health patientsNot reported
Patients who had been prescribed lithium had about 44% less dementia than those who had not. The authors warn that this group differs from the general public and that the result should not be applied to everyone.
Discussed on Alternative programs
Public / nonprofit UK Medical Research Council
Toups K et al., Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 2022;88(4):1411–142125 with mild cognitive impairment or early Alzheimer’s9 months
Average scores on a short memory test (MoCA) rose from 24.6 to 27.6 out of 30. Because everyone got the program and nobody was compared with a control group, there is no way to tell how much came from the protocol.
Discussed on Alternative programs
Seller conflict Four Winds Foundation and private donors
Conflicts: Dr. Bredesen is chief science officer of Apollo Health, which sells ReCODE.
Akhondzadeh S et al., Psychopharmacology 201054 people with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s22 weeks
30 mg of saffron a day worked about as well as donepezil on thinking scores, with fewer side effects. There was no placebo group, and nearly all saffron trials come from one research group in Iran.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Seller conflict Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Green Plants of Life Co. (IMPIRAN)
Conflicts: The saffron company co-funded the trial and supplied the saffron.
Akhondzadeh S et al., Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 200342 people with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s4 months
People taking 60 drops a day of sage extract scored better on thinking and daily-function scales than those on placebo, and had less agitation. It has not been repeated by another team.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Funder not confirmed Not reported. Run at Tehran University of Medical Sciences.
Aron L, Yankner BA et al., Nature 2025391 donated brains; no living person took lithium3–9 months (mice)
Lithium was the only metal found consistently low in the brains of people with mild memory loss and Alzheimer’s. In mice, cutting dietary lithium sped up plaques, tau and memory loss. A tiny dose of lithium orotate in drinking water nearly prevented plaques and reversed memory loss in the mice. The senior author says people should not take lithium on their own until human trials find a safe, effective dose.
Discussed on Alternative programs
Public / nonprofit National Institute on Aging; Ludwig, Glenn and Aging Mind foundations
Oulhaj A et al., Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 2016266 people aged 70+ with mild cognitive impairment (133 per group)2 years
The B-vitamin benefit depended on omega-3 levels at the start. Among people with higher omega-3 levels, 33% on B vitamins showed clinical decline vs 59% on placebo. In people with low omega-3, B vitamins made little difference. This was a look back at an existing trial, so it needs its own test.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Seller conflict UK Medical Research Council; Charles Wolfson Charitable Trust; Norman Collisson Foundation; Norwegian Research Council
Conflicts: Co-author A. David Smith is named on the Oxford folic-acid patents disclosed in the 2010 VITACOG paper. We did not read this paper’s own disclosure statement.
Ghahremani M et al., Alzheimer’s & Dementia: DADM 202312,388 older adults10 years
People who took vitamin D had fewer dementia diagnoses. Doses weren’t known, and people who take supplements may simply be healthier. The VITAL trial found no effect.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Public / nonprofit University of Calgary; NIA-funded database
Soula M et al., Nature Neuroscience 2023MiceNot applicable
An independent lab found that 40 Hz flickering light did not produce the expected brain rhythms deep in the brain, and did not lower plaque.
Discussed on The frontier
Funder not confirmed Not reported
Morales-García JA et al., Scientific Reports 2017None (cells only)Not applicable
Harmine and two related compounds from the ayahuasca vine made brain stem cells grow, move and mature. Cell studies are a first step, far from treatment.
Discussed on The frontier
Funder not confirmed Not reported
Nakhaee S et al., Nutritional Neuroscience 2024 (online 2023)40 studies, only 2 in humansNot applicable
33 studies were in animals and 5 in cells. The 2 human studies disagreed with each other. There is no trial of cinnamon in people with dementia.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Funder not confirmed Not reported
Smith AN et al., Alzheimer’s & Dementia: TRCI 202519 people with Alzheimer’s8 weeks
20 g a day raised brain creatine by 11%, with some gains on memory tests. Without a placebo group, this is a starting point only.
Discussed on Nutrition & deficiencies
Public / nonprofit KU Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center
Morales-García JA et al., Translational Psychiatry 2020Mice (5 to 12 per group)Not applicable
Injected DMT increased new nerve cells in the memory center (hippocampus) and improved maze and object-memory tests in mice. No human dementia studies exist.
Discussed on The frontier
Funder not confirmed Not reported
Shapira R et al., Aging 2021Small number of patients (no control group), plus miceNot reported
Brain blood flow improved in a few patients, and mice had fewer plaques. There is no controlled trial in people with Alzheimer’s.
Discussed on The frontier
Seller conflict Not reported
Conflicts: The senior author co-founded Aviv Scientific, which sells hyperbaric treatment at Aviv Clinics.
Cherian KN et al., Nature Medicine 202430 male Special Operations veterans with traumatic brain injuryOne treatment, with follow-up to 1 month
Large improvements in disability, PTSD, depression and some thinking tests (speed, planning). No serious side effects; magnesium was given to protect the heart. Treatment was given in Mexico. These were younger men with head injuries, not people with dementia.
Discussed on The frontier
Charity The VETS nonprofit paid for travel; other funding not reported in our notes
Li IC et al., Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 202049 people with mild Alzheimer’s enrolled (41 in the main analysis)49 weeks
No clear benefit on thinking. Some scores, including daily living, improved; others did not.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Seller conflict Grape King Bio (maker of the extract)
Conflicts: The product maker paid five authors’ salaries.
Case report, Frontiers in Neuroscience 20261About 2 months (two doses a month apart)
A woman in her eighties, 10 years into Alzheimer’s, was given 5 grams of mushrooms outside any medical setting, then 3 grams a month later. Her family reported temporary gains in continence, dressing, speech and social contact. No standard tests were used. The authors say the case does not imply disease reversal.
Discussed on The frontier
Public / nonprofit None reported
Garcia-Romeu A, Rosenberg P (lead investigators), Johns Hopkins; trial NCT04123314Planned about 20 (not yet confirmed)About 12 weeks of visits, with 3- and 6-month follow-up
No results published that we could find as of September 2026. The trial tests whether two guided psilocybin sessions ease depression in mild cognitive impairment or early Alzheimer’s. It does not test memory or disease slowing. Its status is unclear: the Hopkins page says “recruiting”, Penn Memory Center says it is not taking new people, and a 2025 research summary listed expected completion as September 2025.
Discussed on The frontier
Charity Not yet confirmed (reported as philanthropic and NIH-related)
Moss M, Oliver L, Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology 201220 healthy adultsOne session
People who breathed rosemary oil scent in a room had a rosemary compound (1,8-cineole) in their blood. Higher levels went with faster, more accurate answers on thinking tasks. No one with dementia was tested.
Discussed on Traditional medicine
Funder not confirmed Not reported
Bredesen DE, Aging 201410Not reported
9 of 10 patients were reported to improve on a personalized program of diet, sleep, exercise, supplements and hormone work. With no comparison group, it cannot show what caused the change. The program later became ReCODE and the book The End of Alzheimer’s.
Discussed on Alternative programs
Seller conflict Not reported
Conflicts: Dr. Bredesen is now chief science officer of Apollo Health, which sells programs based on this protocol.
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